1
PARANORMAL FEATS
The paranormal has a long history and has changed both its name and its content throughout time. The Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist, Carl Gustav Jung spoke about the ‘supranormal’, writing ‘I have observed and also partially analysed people who seemed to possess a supranormal faculty and were able to make use of it at will’ (Jung, 1975, pp. 538–42). His interest in parapsychology was explored by the Swiss analyst Aniela Jaffé (1967) who drew attention to his own personal experiences of the paranormal. The German scientist Gerhard Wassermann (1919–2004) referred to psychic phenomena as ‘Shadow Matter’ (1993).
People’s belief systems have changed; science has both confirmed as genuine or denounced as fake, phenomena referred to as ‘supernatural’, ‘paranormal’, ‘anomalous’, ‘occult’, ‘magick’ and so on.
According to the occultist Aleister Crowley (1875–1947) ‘Magick has led the world from the beginning of history, if only for the reason that Magick has always been the mother of science’ (cited in Page, 1988, p.36). Broadly speaking there seems to be a clear distinction in Western cultures between science and magick compared to a greater amalgamation in Eastern cultures (ibid.).
Not everyone is enamoured with the efficacy of science as an ultimate source of knowledge for the investigation of all phenomena. The American psychiatrist and researcher, Jule Eisenbud (1908–1999) was particularly scathing about scientific protocols:
The textbook picture of science is that of the gradual growth of a body of increasingly refined techniques aimed at the separation of truth from error and a closer and closer approximation to things as they really are … But the fact is … it has gotten away from things as they really are. In seeking to discover underlying regularities beneath the ceaseless flow and change and variation of things, science has relentlessly abstracted events from their natural matrices and in so doing has squeezed from them the very essence of their being (Eisenbud, 1992, p. 138).
Furthermore, it has been argued that ‘The effects of the Western scientific method on our views of life, and in particular on our views of mankind, have produced a one-sided outlook’ (Crompton, 1990, p. 13). ‘So, is magic a descent into the supernatural or, more realistically, an interaction involving human consciousness? Are the entities manifested within the realm of magic real spirits, or human constructs?’ (North, 1996, p. 96). Read on for a journey of exploration.
Mesmerism (named after Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) a German physician) became legitimized as hypnosis after further research, and possession was explained as a psychological disorder in contrast to being taken over by demons. Many of the potions that were hitherto the realm of those equally diabolically-charged witches, were found to have genuine medical properties. However, science has also been successful in demolishing (at least to date) such myths as the flat-earth assumption and a number of conspiracy theories (e.g. Dunning, 2018). Different cultures can also respond to such concepts in different ways, ranging from an acceptance of non-physical forces as normal or a more materialistic viewpoint (Barclay, 1975, p. 11). The sources of these powers are similarly varied with some cultures claiming a strongly spiritual origin whilst others look to internal powers rather than divine intervention.
Writing about the ‘Stargate’ experiment (see later notes) Jessica Utts (1952-) wrote ‘Using the standards applied to any other areas of science, it is concluded that psychic functioning has been well established (Utts, 1995, p. 2).
For the purpose of this chapter, I shall only categorize and explore phenomena reported to lie outside the normal (hence paranormal) or arguably abnormal, and claimed to exist within the martial arts. For instance:
When one hears of an octogenarian just five feet tall and of very slight build simultaneously throwing six burly opponents across a room … there can be no doubt that something extraordinary is occurring; not to mention numerous instances on record of sundry martial artists being able to cut in half a pile of boards, bricks or tiles with a bare hand, stop a raging bull with a single blow, or even claims that involve the simulation of invisibility, instantaneous bodily healing … and the use of sound to immobilize an opponent (Crowley, 1993, pp. ix-x).
There have been many claims of paranormality of a general nature, without specifying the attributes or specific details (people, places, dates.) of the occurrences.
Possibly, the greatest karateka of them all, Masutatsu Oyama (1923–1994) claimed that the inner meaning ‘is a kind of supernatural power and is obtained through mystical means [and] comes about through a fostering of the sixth sense’ (Oyama, 1984, p. 319). The karateka sensei Don Buck (1926–1998) from Navato, California was taught by Oyama and, on at least one occasion, won arm-wrestling competitions using just his little finger (Barclay, 1975, p. 51). The renowned aikidoist Koichi Tohei (1920–2011) was believed to achieve his ‘physically impossible’ feats ‘through the instrumentality of occult powers’ (ibid. pp. 43–44) and Sokaku Takeda (1859–1943), the founder of the school of jujutsu, ‘developed seemingly supernatural techniques’ (Crudelli, 2010, p. 207).
Morihei Ueshiba (1883–1969)
Most famous of all was Morihei Ueshiba the founder of the martial art aikido. A considerable amount has been written about him (see bibliography) and his abilities embraced numerous demonstrations of paranormality. At least one of these ‘qualities’ was caught on film (Crowley, 1993, p. 23); (Murphy & White, 1978, p. 100); (Payne, 1981, p. 32) and several authors wrote about his ‘miraculous feats’ (Suenaka & Watson, 1997, p. 106). Further commentaries included:
The testimonies of people who knew him … provide strong evidence that Uyeshiba [sic] possessed telepathic and other extraordinary abilities … including extraordinary movement abilities, mystical cognition and a personal radiance that inspired countless people (Murphy 1992, p. 451).
He was able to disarm a bandit in Mongolia who held him up at pistol point, because he became aware of the gunman’s intention to shoot him before he was able to pull the trigger. In 1925 a Japanese naval officer attacked him with nan oak sword, but was similarly unable to hit because Ueshiba always knew where the officer was going to strike before he actually did so (Barclay, 1975, p. 49).
His reported abilities include:
• Dexterity (kokyu-nage) in his eighties, enabling him to evade simultaneous close-contact attacks by multiple trained opponents (Jay Gluck, cited in Barclay, 1975, pp. 42–43; Frantzis, 1998, pp. 118–19)
• Fending off arrows and bullets fired at him (Barclay, 1975, p. 43; Brecher, 1998, p. 105; Crowley, 1993, pp. 72–75)
• Anticipating attacks through intuition or alleged telepathy (Barclay, 1975, p. 48)
• Leaping over an assailant’s head (Brecher, 1998, p. 106)
• Reducing his body weight by two-thirds (Crowley, 1993, p. 72)
• Knocking down opponents with a shout (Crudelli, 2010, p. 238; Pranin, 2010, p. 123)
• Remaining immovable despite attempts to move him (ibid., p. 44)
• Intuition (ibid., p. 110)
• Throwing opponents with a simple touch (ibid., p. 162)
• Bilocation (Payne, 1981, p. 32)
For further detailed information about Ueshiba and aikido with special reference to spirituality I recommend Margaret Greenhalgh’s thesis (2003) ‘Aikido and spirituality: Japanese religious influences in a martial art.’ which is also available as a book (Greenhalgh, 2010).
Aikido or The Way of Spiritual Harmony
It seems to be appropriate to expand a little on the martial art aikido, since it has already appeared in the previous section and will make further appearances throughout the text. ‘Ueshiba increasingly regarded martial exercises as constituting a spiritual practice – that is, martial arts as meditation’ (Raposa, 2003, p. 17).
Once again, it is not my intention to provide a detailed history of the system or discuss its various moves and techniques. Neither shall I mention ki (note the earlier text about spelling) in any great detail since the paragraph below will expand accordingly. There are many books devoted to aikido’s origin which mainly convey the same information with varying amounts of detail, but including paranormality. For instance, (Barclay, 1975); (Gleason, 2009).
Generally speaking, aikido is thought to be a ‘modern’ martial art that was founded by Ueshiba during the course of his lifetime and ‘employs the redirection of an attacker’s energy (or ki) into a variety of holds, locks, and projections, and is probably best known for an exclusive focus on defensive manoeuvres and for its unique martial philosophy’ (Long, 2001, p. 12). He developed the new art of aikido based on previous knowledge of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu after he experienced a life-changing vision (also referred to as a ‘spiritual awakening’) after which he philosophised that the true source of the martial arts was divine love or trying to be at one with the universe (Wildish, 2000, pp. 145–58). He passed on his legacy to numerous pupils and followers including Koichi Tohei, Yoshimitsu Yamada, Tadashi Abe, Gozo Shioda, Kenji Tomiki and Ueshiba’s own son Kisshomaru (Williams, 1987, pp. 109–110).
On the scientific level aikido has found cross-cultural validation with Ericksonian concepts of hypnosis and hypnotherapy whereby energy is blended with another person rather than resisting it (Windle & Samko, 1992). The parapsychologist Charles Tart (1937–2025) was a highly-ranked aikidoka who embraced its concepts in his writing drawing together mind-body concepts (1987).
‘There are some regions [of the martial arts] which patently transcend the normal and border on the supernormal … Certain magickal processes also appear to be at work which can defy rational explanation … [and promote] the ability to perform physically impossible actions through occult development’ (Crowley, 1993, pp. ix–5).
The terminology to describe these feats is varied according to the writers, researchers, reporters, and participants. The terms ‘empty force’, ‘magic’, ‘occult’, ‘vital force’ and others are used at different times often, but not always, to express the same types of phenomena which is outside of the generally accepted physical realms. It is difficult to be precise about the nature of the phenomena:
People who practice martial arts for a long period of time realize they are not only working on the physical level, but that sometimes by adopting a certain mental attitude, they can influence the attacker, and that there is some element present beyond technique which is very difficult to describe (Pranin, 2010, p. 43).
The author and parapsychologist Loyd Auerbach devotes a sizeable section of the ‘Outstanding Human Physical performance’ part of his book Mind over Matter (1996, pp. 39–52) to the martial arts, where he comments on the mind-to-mind communication of telepathy, ESP, precognition and many of the other attributes associated with combat systems.
The manifestations discussed below are mainly within the realms of extra-sensory perception (ESP), including telepathy, precognition, intuition and psychokinesis (PK), the purported ability to move people or objects without physical contact, as well as seemingly supernatural strength and dexterity; levitation; immovability; invisibility; invulnerability to pain; the use of the voice as a weapon; the so-called delayed-action punch (dim mak) and so on.
Extra-sensory perception
The German psychologist Hans Eynsenck (1916–97) succinctly summed-up whether mind-reading had any legitimacy:
Unless there is a gigantic conspiracy involving some thirty University departments all over the world, and several hundred highly respected scientists in various fields, many of them originally hostile to the claims of the psychical researchers, the only conclusion the unbiased observer can come to must be that there does exist a small number of people who obtain knowledge existing either in other people’s minds, or in the outer world, by means as yet unknown to science (Eysenck, 1957, pp. 131–32).
ESP is a major focus for parapsychology research (previously and in many quarters still referred to as psychical research) throughout universities around the world. The investigation of psychical phenomena was formally instigated by the founding of the Society for Psychical Research in 1882 in Cambridge, England. It is still in existence in 2026 with its headquarters in London and its archives at Cambridge University Library and in Norfolk.
Arguably, parapsychology started in 1930 at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina, and in 1935 the Duke Parapsychology Lab was established with J.B. Rhine (1895–1980) at its head and it has been known as the Rhine Research Center since 1995. After many years of experimental work, Louisa Rhine (1891–1983) concluded that ‘the mind does have a force that can affect physical matter directly’ (Rhine, 1970, p. 1).
The Koestler Parapsychology Unit was established in 1985 at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, with the parapsychologist Robert (Bob) Morris (1942–2004) as the first holder of the professorial chair. Since then, other departments have investigated ESP, including the University of Northampton, England. The subject’s role in the martial arts has received notable attention from Michael Murphy (1992) in conjunction with Rhea White (1978).
There are differences of opinion as to what ESP should or should not include under its heading, but for the purpose of its application to the martial arts, I shall highlight the following areas which involve abilities beyond the known physical senses, hence extra-sensory:
• Telepathy (mind-reading)
• Precognition (foreknowledge of future events)
• Intuition or a ‘sixth sense’ (gut feelings about situations)
Telepathy
‘Sustained telepathic rapport’ (Murphy, 1992, p. 44) has been included in a list of the products of metanormal development. The term ‘telepathy’ is often used as an ability used by martial artists without specific examples being given. For instance, an advanced judoka was ‘expected to have acquired a sensitivity in combat situations which amounted to telepathy…’ (Barclay, 1975, p. 22) and yogic perfections similarly included such skills (ibid. p. 93). ‘Telepathic sensitivity’ is also said to be effective when used as a defence against a ‘whiplash’ punch (Payne, 1981, p. 19).
In a Jeffrey Mishlove (1946-) interview of the aikido teacher and author George Leonard (1923–2010) they are in agreement about the possibility of telepathy within aikido. It also has a claimed for place in tai chi where ‘The training can get somewhat ‘psychic’ in that after your mind becomes sufficiently sensitive, quiet and still, you can become one with an attacking man’s energy. You literally slip into his mind space and his energy will tell you how to defeat him’ (Frantzis, 1998, p. 162). ‘A skill developed in some form by most combat sports is an intuitive anticipation of the opponent’s next movement; this may be developed to a seemingly telepathic level’ (Payne, 1981, p. 12).
Sokaku Takeda, the founder of a school of jujutsu known as Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, was said to have ‘perfected an ability to understand the minds of others, which helped him to develop seemingly supernatural techniques’ (Crudelli, 2010, p. 207). Kenji Tomichi (1900–79), the founder of Tomichi aikido believed that telepathy and hypnotism exists at the outer limits of budo (the Japanese term for the ‘way’ within martial arts) (Pranin, 2010, p. 43). A detailed description is provided in E.J. Harrison’s The Fighting Spirit of Japan (1982) where he cites a letter sent by R.E. West to R.W. Smith (neither identified in detail) in 1954, the contents of which describes an encounter between West and a ‘Mr Matsuura’:
He [Matsuura] demonstrated to me the ability of mental telepathy or something similar. … Sitting on his knees with his back to me and his hands together, he made his mind blank of all conscious thought. The idea was that I was to remain behind him for as long a time as I desired. Then with all the speed and power I could muster I was to grab him by the throat and pull him over backwards. I sweated it out for maybe two or three minutes without making a move. Then I put all my power and speed I could into the effort. My next step was to get up from my back where I had landed in front of him. His explanation was that the action was not conscious, but rather sprang from the seat of reflex control, the tanden, or second brain (Harrison, 1982, p. 127).
Perhaps the biggest problem with telepathy, if it works, is how it works. Numerous parapsychologists (for instance, Thouless and Wiesner, 1947 and Heywood, 1974) have wrestled with this dilemma as to whether the ‘normal’ senses are by-passed altogether or whether they are operating in a way that is currently unknown. Another factor might be whether both people in telepathic contact have to be in some ways in rapport with each other or not. An analogy given to me by a student many years ago was that two planes may be flying towards each other, but at different heights meaning that they may not be aware of each other’s position in the sky or the attributes of their different surroundings.
Precognition
‘The accumulated evidence is clear: Precognition exists’ (Radin, 2013, p. 176). Practitioners of precognition have a long history of claiming positive results. Prophets, seers, clairvoyants, fortune tellers, etc. still claim to have the ability to look into the future be it long, medium or short-term. (See for instance ). The forms that foreknowledge/foresight take vary according to the individuals concerned and the situations encountered. For our purposes the obvious limitation is looking at its place in the martial arts.
Glen Barclay (1930-) links it with telepathy (Barclay, 1975, p. 22; 93), but goes even further in stating that ‘the whole idea of precognition, which can at least hardly be doubted except by the most unreconstructed sceptic, depends absolutely upon the notion of diverse universes … Precognition thus demands a world in which everything that will happen is happening all the time somewhere, and everything that has already happened is still happening all the time somewhere else’ (ibid. p. 145).
Specific examples of precognition within the martial arts are difficult to prove since fast reaction times may be due to sensory clues rather than knowing in advance what the opponent was about to do. The Seattle Martial Arts Club introduces the simple solution with the concept of Occam’s razor which states that one should not add elaborations beyond what is necessary.
Applying this to the interpretation of psychic power, the simplest answer is genuine psychic power. The club website investigates the issues surrounding precognition and its importance in timing for defence purposes in particular and introduces the reader to sen-sen no sen which is a pre-emptive attack or defence based on non-sensorial clues from the opponent, i.e., precognition (see National Geographic’s Channel Fight Science devoted to spectacular timing).
Specific examples within the martial arts can be found in consciousness studies, for example ‘I would start to move and my opponent would throw a kick and I would realize I was moving out of the way of a kick. But I was doing it before I knew why! I just moved, and they would throw a kick and miss’ (Ralston, n.d., p. 29).
Intuition and the Sixth Sense
With slight hesitation I have placed these two terms together since the differences (if any) seem to be minimal and dependent on the interpretation of the word’s user. According to some sources, there are even different types of intuition within the definition of the word itself (Bahm, 1965, pp. 33–69). Like the previous examples of ESP these concepts do not just appear in a martial arts scenario, but can also be found in daily life. The American psychologist Jeffrey Mishlove draws attention to intuition’s place in a host of different fields including mathematics, music, religion, and science (Mishlove, 1994, pp. 31–36).
Henri Bergson (1859–1941), the Nobel prize winner and 1913 president of the Society for Psychical Research, wrote extensively about the concept of intuition which he conceived as a manifestation of ‘metaphysics’ (Bergson, 2007). For various explanations and examples the reader should consult the Psi Encyclopedia and put in the appropriate word where directed. For a more sceptical approach the Nobel Prize-winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman’s ‘Debunking the myth of intuition’ interview presents a different in-depth view of the phenomena.
As far as the martial arts are concerned, a so-called ‘intuitive’ sensation can be observed as an opponent’s next move or attack is anticipated. It is demonstrated in the Chinese martial art hsin-kung (various spellings) and intuition is compared to a hunter’s experiences in Stanley Pranin’s series of interviews with famous names in aikido (Pranin, 2010). Chris Crudelli (1972-) draws attention to the sixth sense in his writings about Shintaido which, as part of its training, uses immersion in a freezing waterfall to encourage its development (Crudelli, 2010, p. 241). However, Murphy and White prefer to describe the sixth sense within a general sports situation as ‘A composite of several sensory modalities and abilities such as timing, knowledge of the opponents’ style of play, muscle memory, and subliminal perception. Sometimes it may even include an ‘X’ ingredient not yet differentiated that galvanizes the player into an action uniting the right movements at the right moment’ (Murphy & White, 1978, p. 51). They follow-up their comments with a general merging of the terms ESP, telepathy, clairvoyance, etc., with the sixth sense. Elsewhere the Japanese term zanshin or ‘total awareness’ is used to convey an instinctive and intuitive use of the senses (Williams, 1987, p. 12).
